Western Civilization-Ancient History
Part I

Section I

In the Beginning
When tribes were nomadic, they basically hunted and gathered their food on a daily basis. When the areas were "dry" (i.e. hunted and gathered out), they would need to move on in order to be able to find food. Much time was spent on merely trying to eke out a meager existence. The people in these tribes didn't have time for much else, let alone time to think, invent, discover, etc.

A Brief Word on Equality
It is believed by many sociologists that in the time of the hunting and gathering societies, men and women were actually considered equals. Women were the ones who did the hunting because they were better at it instinctually. Men did hunt, but they also gathered food like nuts, berries, etc. The men of the tribes soon adopted the women's hunting styles, perfected them, and became as good as the women at hunting for food. Soon after, women were banished to the task of gathering food, making clothing, and finding suitable shelter. This change is argued to have essentially brought about the idea that women were lesser beings than men. But this certainly was not the case in the beginning.

Domestication of Animals
 Sometime after the last ice age (10,000 BC) and during the mesolithic period (10,000-7,000 BC), people began to domesticate animals. Many sources claim that people began to domesticate animals as well as develop agricultural settings at the same time, but it makes more sense to me that domestication would have come first. Nomadic tribes would still have been able to travel if they domesticated animals, but they would be tied down to one place if they began growing crops. This leads me to believe that some people probably found a way to tame the animals they ate and started taking small herds of them with them as they went from place to place in search of other forms of food. This alone is enough to give people more time to pursue other activities, but it still leaves them wandering without a permanent home. It also still leaves the gathering of plants, seeds, berries, etc. to take care of, which I would think would be a large part of their diet.

Agriculture
Sometime between 8,000 and 7,000 BC, people began to develop agricultural practices. I can only guess how it began, but people probably started to notice the cycles of the growing season, how plants dropped their seeds, etc. and decided to try and take those seeds and do something with them. It probably took many tries to get anything to grow considering the fact that these people had no prior knowledge of how to cultivate anything. There was no "Farming for Dummies" book to refer to. This would have been a difficult period because if their crops didn't grow, they would have wasted a lot of time and in the end, they would have to go back to foraging for food. However, once they got the practice of farming their crops down to a level that was stable, they would be able to not only have enough food to eat, but also develop methods for preserving this food, storing it for future use, etc.

Conclusion
It is believed that they started in 4 different areas of the globe. Wherever it started, this was the development that opened the door to all other things. Not only did people have enough food to eat, but they now were able to have a surplus of it. The practice of farming led people to be forced into settling down and forming a community. Some people would tend flocks of sheep, pigs, goats, etc. and others would grow crops of barley, wheat, and other plant species. But since one person was able to grow much more than he alone needed, this surplus of food enabled other people to pursue other activities. The reason I think historians refer to this period as "the greatest event of pre-history" is because without the advent of farming both animals and crops, people wouldn't have time to do anything else. They wouldn't have developed towns, they wouldn't have a surplus of food that would enable some people to do other things, and that would prevent them from coming up with new ideas. They wouldn't have had time to become more creative, developing art, craft, and myriad of other things. This, in turn, wouldn't have opened the door to trade with other communities. Without anything to trade, there would be no need to develop a monetary system. The list of accomplishments that hinge on the development of agriculture and the domestication of animals goes on and on.

Section II

Development of Agriculture and Farming
Obviously, after answering the last question, I think one of the most important "gifts," if not THE most important one, is agriculture and farming techniques. If it were not for this development, I feel that getting to any point beyond a nomadic lifestyle would have been near impossible to accomplish. While there were some successful cultures who were based on a nomadic lifestyle, it isn't one that is conducive to forming a civilization. A stable community is essential in the formation of new ideas, inventions, technologies, etc. Without agriculture and farming, there would have been no surplus of food and thus, a large part of everyone's daily lives would have been spent foraging for food. Too, agriculture brought about the ability to trade, which in turn brought about the need for a written language and a numerical system.

Written Language
Language is essential to our daily lives and without it, I am not sure we would have gotten very far. According to many sites I've visited, language was brought about by the need for record keeping for trade purposes. Cuneiform, which apparently began in Mesopotamia as far back as 3,000 BC, was the first form of written language. It is argued that this language came into being because of economic reasons, namely for the for the purpose of accounting and keeping records of transactions. Without the development of language, ideas, thoughts, discoveries, etc. would not have been passed down through generations and conveyed to other cultures. Some may argue that written language is not necessary to pass these things on to other people, citing that there are still cultures such as the aborigines in Australia who rely solely on spoken language to teach their history to successive generations. However, these people are disappearing quickly and while they do still exist, they are on such a small scale it is evident that the fact that they DO rely only on spoken language is what has kept them from reaching the same point our society has, whether for good or for bad. The benefits of developing a written language are many and while there may be negative aspects of what has occurred as a result of it, I still consider it to be a great accomplishment of the ancient world.

Religion
Religion is such a controversial subject that some would argue whether or not it can be considered an actual "gift" of the ancient people. While I myself am not a religious person (I am a spiritual one), I do see the benefits it has for some. One of which is the way it brings a group of people together. Most, if not all, of the ancient cultures were developed around their religious beliefs and through these beliefs, they developed their laws, mythology, ideas, etc. Religion was a motivating factor in the development of technology as well. The progression of everything from architecture to science to philosophy was almost always brought about via religious beliefs. Without religion, some of the greatest monuments in the world would never have been built. Egyptians were immersed in their religion and incorporated it into daily life and their reasons, although indirect, for doing nearly everything was because of their religious beliefs. While there may have been other motivating factors in many of the ancient people's undertakings, the fact that religion played such a large part of the lives of ancient peoples makes it an incredibly important facet of the ancient world and thus, a huge contribution.

Obviously, there have been numerous negative impacts brought about by the development of religion. It is an unfortunate thing that people cannot seem to acknowledge other's beliefs and accept them as equally valid. Religion has certainly had its bad side and many a war was waged because one people disagreed with another regarding their beliefs. However, while these are negative things, and I do not intend to make them out to be anything but, they did have an impact nonetheless. There aren't many developments that had an all-good or all-bad consequence. The formation of a civilized society is one that includes both positive and negative aspects of itself. While I do not condone violent acts in the name of religion, I can see how it does bring a mass of people together via a common ground.

Trade
Even though trade is related to agriculture, it is a separate entity. Trade was first introduced in the ancient world and contributed much to its progression. It not only enabled cultures to mingle, but it also served as a carrier for ideas and technologies that may not have made their way into certain areas of the globe if it weren't for trade (or at least would have made it a lot slower). Even though the ideas themselves may not have been traded, goods and services were. People moved into different countries in order to trade those goods and services, and many took up residence in lands other than their homeland. As people migrated due to trade, they also took their culture and ideas with them. Trade also helped contribute to the need for a written language and a working numerical system, which as stated previously, has merit of its own.

While there are some negative implications surrounding trade, most of them turn out to be moral or ethical. Trade is related to money, and there are obviously some immoral reasons people might engage in trade. There are things like corruption that may arise as a consequence of material goods being valued in a society. If it weren't for trade, these things would be seen less often. Material goods wouldn't be as prevalent and people probably wouldn't value them as much. But as with most things, the positive greatly outweighs the negative and overall, I think trade was a good development of the ancient peoples.

Culture
If there is one thing no one can deny about ancient civilization, it's that they had a rich and diverse culture. This is the one closest to my heart because, being an artist, I hold cultural developments in high esteem. Culture is everywhere in our society and while it may not be as important to some as my previously mentioned "gifts," it is an extremely important part of any civilization. In fact, the very definition of the word society includes the term culture. Without a common ideology, people would be unable to form a unified civilization. This ideology includes both religion and culture. The Egyptians were masters at utilizing their culture as we can still see today both by witnessing the monuments that still stand as well as by noticing the popularity of Egyptian art and style. Another aspect of culture shows itself in the more creative sides of these ancient peoples. From the hanging gardens of babylon to the great pyramids to the megalithic structures of Stonehenge, we see evidence of the culture of these people everywhere. It is in great part what draws us to their history. With help from religion, the mythology of ancient civilizations was formed and continues to fascinate people today.

From an economic standpoint, different cultures means that trade between countries is more desirable. People become curious about material objects that are made in other countries and thus, grow interested in trading their cultural objects for someone else's. Culture also comes into play when we have warring countries who then take over control of a former separate area. We have a blending of these cultures that serves to create a whole new culture symbolic of the merging of the people involved. On the whole, I think the importance of culture is underestimated. It stands behind the forefront as an underlying part of a society, but without it, we wouldn't have much of a group. In fact, I would go so far as to say that culture encompasses everything else from a society's way of doing business, to their religious beliefs, style of clothing and building, etc. Culture is a lasting image of these ancient civilizations and without it, we probably wouldn't know a thing about them.

Section III

Egypt--Daily Life
Religion in Egypt wasn't merely religion, it was a way of life. Mythology, Gods and Goddesses, the cyclical nature of days, seasons, and lifetimes, life, and death were all incorporated into the philosophy of the Egyptians. The annual flooding of the nile, the daily return of the sun, the moon's cycle, the crop seasons and harvests were all attributed to Gods and Goddesses. Because of this, the Egyptians were very religious people who prayed for many positive aspects of their lives. From this alone, we can see how religion was infused in every part of their lives.

Egypt--Death
Many people believe that Egyptians were obsessed with death, but in fact they were celebrators of life. They worked hard, but enjoyed their daily activities, family life, and for some, parties with friends. Some spent vast amounts of money in preparation for the life beyond death, but this is only because they believed that they would engage in the same activities they did when they were alive. Wealthier Egyptians, mainly the Pharaoh, his family, and possibly some of his staff, were mummified, buried in tombs, and had many of their treasured objects with them along with food and "instructions" that were inscribed on walls and their sarcophagus. Some people saved for the majority of their lifetimes in order to buy the Book of the Dead which they felt would aid them in the hereafter.

Egypt--Religion
A large part of the reason the Egyptians were so religious is that they felt the better they lived their lives, the more chance they had of being judged in a positive light by Osiris. This was of all importance to the Egyptians and they lived their lives according to their beliefs about what would happen to after they died. In much the same way Christianity and other religions preach that one should live a good and decent life in order to go to heaven, the Egyptians believed that if they did so, they would be granted eternal life in the hereafter. This was motivation enough for most of them.

Perhaps even more important than the hereafter, and a more immediately gratifying reason to incorporate religion into their daily lives was the sense of unity it created for them. Egyptians were among the most successful cultures in history and part of the reason was the common threads they shared via religion. As with cultures before and since theirs, religion serves as a center from which people of different backgrounds, locations, and castes can branch out, but still remain tied by the web of religion.

Mesopotamia and Religion
In much the same way that Egypt's religion infiltrated every part of the people's lives, so too did the Mesopotamian's religion. The deities, although called by different names, were very similar to the nature-based deities of Egypt. The people of Mesopotamia believed, as did the Egyptians, that the cities belonged to the Gods and Goddesses and that the priests, pharaohs, etc. were divine beings appointed to watch over them. Nearly every good or bad thing that happened to the Mesopotamians was viewed from a supernatural standpoint. They believed that famines, floods, and good harvests were all caused by the Gods depending on whether the people were in good favor or not. Humans spent a great deal of time trying to appease the Gods by praying, writing and singing hymns, and generally trying to figure out what the Gods wanted them to do. Divination was a big part of this guessing game and many forms were invented in order to try and catch a glimpse of what might be in store for a particular person or group of people. Laws were developed in order to try and make sure people acted in accordance with the God's wishes, the most famous of which was the Code of Hammurabi.

Similarities and Differences
As noted, the religions of Egyptian and Mesopotamian society was extremely similar. Both were based on nature Gods that controlled the environment and people's destinies. The biggest difference between the two is that while Mesopotamians felt insecure regarding the Gods, the Egyptians celebrated the good things the Gods gave them. The Mesopotamians felt that they were owned by the Gods, in a way, and that the purpose of their lives was to serve them in every way by working hard and trying to figure out how to appease the Gods and make them happy so their lives would be pleasant. On the other hand, Egyptians concentrated more on living a good life in order to attain eternal life in the hereafter by being judged after they died. Rather than fear the Gods, they focused on living in a way they felt the Gods would want. While Mesopotamian culture's main purpose was to spend their days making the God's happy, the Egyptian's reasoning was that they would live and enjoy life in a manner that would guarantee them a positive afterlife.

Section IV

Question: What was the role of women in Egyptian society? What kind of equality or inequality existed between men and women? Why do you think the structure was the way it was?

Politics
For women in ancient Egypt, political offices were not out of reach. In fact, although rare, there were even Egyptian queens (namely Hatshepsut and Cleopatra). There were some restrictions regarding what seats women could fill and were usually excluded from administrative positions below the king. A common title for women was that of the "mistress of the house," which paid respect to the demands placed on her in order to keep a household running. Military positions also excluded women. Most of these "equalities" that were afforded women in Egypt, however, were done so to the elite. Women of lower status probably enjoyed far fewer choices and rights than women of the upper class.

Religion
While women did hold some religious offices for a while, all bureaucratic positions were eliminated after the New Kingdom began. Until then, women held offices as priestesses for Egyptian Gods and Goddesses and even after those were prohibited, they held minor positions as musicians for those in temples for those Gods and Goddesses. Later, we would see a resurgence of priestly positions open for women during the Greco-Roman era only to lose it again once Christianity took hold.

One of the largest ways in which females were represented was in their powerful roles as Goddesses. There were many female deities including Hathor, Isis, and Ma'at. They were largely responsible for ideas dealing with motherhood, fertility, truth, and creativity as well as destructive powers. The female gender was seen as life giving and since the Nile played such an important part in its life-giving properties, we see a kind of reflection and importance of the female deity.

Women's Rights
Unlike many ancient civilizations (and even more recent ones), women in Egypt had considerable rights. They were allowed to own land and pass it down to their children. This is of huge importance in an agricultural civilization such as Egypt. There are many documents demonstrating, even if indirectly, that a women was able to do these things. Most of these documents are wills indicating that the property of the owner shall be passed down to either his wife, daughter, or son, or a combination of all three. There are also documents showing that women could not only inherit property, but contest the will if she felt she had been cheated out of something. Many times, she was fighting against men in court and there are times when women won these court battles. This practice was not limited to the elite, but was common among all class levels.

Even more importantly, at least psychologically, was the honor and guarantee of security given to many women. Men were referred to as sons of their mother instead of their father. Men were expected to supply a household and secure income to their wives and families. When divorce occurred, the property accrued after the marriage was divided equally between husband and wife.

Conclusion
While women may have had many rights compared to other civilizations, both old and new, they were excluded from some careers and activities. Men were able to marry multiple wives, although I've read that this wasn't all that common among the lower classes only because they didn't have enough money to support them. Women, on the other hand, were not able to marry more than one man unless, in the case of her husband's death, it was a second marriage. It is my thought that women were put in charge of domestic life and given the honor for doing so mainly because they were the child bearing ones. Throughout history, women have been regarded as life-givers and the high-esteem with which the Egyptians held this ability is apparent in the honor they bestowed on mothers. Life of the commoner is much more difficult to decipher mainly because most of the documents and artifacts come from the high or noble classes. I am sure these people enjoyed far more equality and rights than women in lower classes.

By Lissa
Copyright 2001