Bohemian Cafe

Western Civilization--Middle Ages

Section I

Agriculture
Two major factors contributed to the increased production of food in the middle ages. The first was the improvement of the quality and the amount of available land. Clear cutting made way for larger farms and crop rotation went from a two-field farm to a three-field farm, although the latter change took longer to take hold. This three-field farm not only left only 1/3 of the land to lie fallow (as opposed to half with a two-field farm), but it also enabled farmers to grow crops more specialized to the season. They would have a winter-crop field and a spring/summer-crop field plus the fallow field and would rotate between them in order to increase the fertility of the soil. The second contributing factor was the introduction of new equipment. The iron plow greatly increased the farmer's ability to turn over the heavy soil of the northern countries. The biggest drawback to this new plow was the fact that, being iron, it was extremely heavy and would require up to 8 oxen to operate. Communities would pitch in to buy both the plow and the oxen needed for farming. It was also bulky, so the farmers turned to a new long and narrow field so they wouldn't need to make as many turns. Other contributions during this time were a horse collar that evenly distributed the weight of the iron plow around the shoulders of the horse so fewer horses would be required to pull the plow, and horse-shoes added to the traction of the horses hooves and allowed them to do more work with less effort.

These things were very important to the people of the day because it allowed them to do their work "easier." Larger fields could be worked by fewer people leaving the rest of the time to pursue other things. While daily life was anything but relaxing, these changes did have a major impact on farming techniques and the ability to do more in less time.

As the population grew, the demand for food grew as well. During the high middle ages, the owners of the large manors began to realize they could profit more if they rented their land instead of accepting food as a kind of payment for it. Soon, serfs who were once bound to the land they worked were renting plots of land to work instead of being tied to a particular lord's land. Manorialism began to disappear by the end of the middle ages and was replaced by a system in which farmers would rent land from lords and would sell their own crops themselves. This proved profitable for both lord and farmer because not only were the farmers now free, but the lords made more money via rent than they did under the old system. As this tendency became the norm, power was soon brought back to the monarchial estates.

Food and Drink
The diets of medieval peasants was a simple one consisting mostly of bread, vegetables, fruit and nuts, and occasionally, meat. Ale was another huge part of the peasant's life. In fact, it was a huge part of everyone's life. Even nobles drank ale, but were much more likely to partake of wine as well. During the middle ages, however, ale was much more nutritious than it is today. Bread was by far the main part of the peasant's fare and it was packed with nutritious ingredients such as oats, barley, wheat, etc. and was generally baked in a communal oven owned by the lord of the manorial estate. There is evidence that conflicts with this information, however. Several sites suggest that peasants did not bake their own bread, but instead took the grain to a miller to have it ground, then took the flour to a baker to have it baked into bread. In general, however, peasants ate a dark, coarse bread while people in higher society ate a lighter colored and textured bread, the best being considered to be white bread. Vegetables were grown in the small gardens and included peas, beans, potatoes, and greens. Fruit was gathered from the woodland areas or from orchards and included berries, apples, pears, and cherries. For peasants, meat was usually only eaten on holidays or at the end of the year after slaughtering the excess livestock they could not afford to feed over the winter. Cheese, milk and eggs were also a part of the daily diet.

Art and Literature
While some might say that art and literature weren't prominent during the middle ages, the creative movement that began to flourish after many years of practically nothing, paved the way for the future explosion of creativity known as the Renaissance. The main artistic movement at this time was known as the Byzantine period. Because religion was such a large part of daily life, most of the artistic works dealt with religious icons, ideas, and stories. Figures were simplistic in nature and highly stylized, but had a certain quality of "light" to them because of the use of gold in the background. An emerging style of art that would become popular even today is the Gothic style. Gothic art with it's towering spires, gargoyles, and massive structures were a huge change from such simple works of prior periods. For centuries, religion would continue to play a huge part in the motivation for some of the most renown paintings in the world.

Sometime during the early middle ages (around 800-900 CE), what would become the French language came to be popularized. The main reason for this was that the clergy sought to better relate to the public by using their common language (German and French). Most literary works at this time were, as with art, related to religion. Manuscripts of religious origin were copied, textbooks were written, and history was recorded. Poetry, hymns, and lore were also popular subjects for written works. Near the end of the middle ages and into the Renaissance, we would see a blossoming of creative works from authors like Shakespeare.

Alchemy
The middle ages were a period of blending science with magic. Alchemy was practiced and became increasingly popular until long after the height of the middle ages and into the Renaissance. More than merely "magic," alchemy was a precursor to modern chemistry and included ideas now included in herbology, physics, medicine, psychology, and mysticism. It isn't limited to merely trying to turn lead into gold. Alchemy was seen as not just a superstition, but as a viable and logical method of healing, divination, understanding and controlling the universe, etc. Many, if not most of these practitioners, however, kept their alchemical texts, knowledge, and ideas secret for fear of religious and political persecution or condemnation. Thus, alchemists began known as occultists, occult stemming from the word "hidden." With tensions being what they were, it is understandable that these people would not want to risk certain death if found guilty of practicing magic. Because of this, few people were taught the practice of alchemy and even then, that was only after a long series of rituals, initiations, and "illuminations." Amazingly, alchemical practices make use of such "modern" ideas as quantum physics, space-time, and time travel. In my opinion, alchemy is certainly a real thing. It dates back to Egyptian times or before and continues on today. Throughout history, there have been times where its popularity has blossomed, the middle ages being one of the most well-known.

Religion
An obvious component to the lives of the people during the middle ages was religion. So much can be written about regarding this subject that I could take up 100 pages and still have only touched the surface, so I will cover just the major factors involved.

As mentioned above, religion played a part in nearly every aspect of life during the middle ages in either a direct or an indirect way. People were generally expected to follow the religion officially designated the "right" religion by the king, emperor, etc. of the country in which they lived. Those who did not follow along suffered dire consequences including imprisonment and most likely, death. Religion was a means of control over the people. Many peasants were being taught by illiterate "men of the cloth" and probably didn't even understand what they were being told. Not surprisingly, the people still practiced the act of praying to God in hopes of having a good harvest. This isn't very far from what the ancient peoples did with their multiple gods only now they were praying to one god, not many. But nonetheless, the prayers remained the same. People were told that in order to be saved, they would have to follow closely, the official religion which was most often Christianity. Unfortunately, political figures used religion as a method of scaring the people into behaving in accordance with their laws. The church would use these same tactics while keeping their sacred doctrines a secret, encouraging people to listen to what priests told them instead of asking questions or reading the bible for themselves. Literacy was discouraged because the church felt that only their priests were close enough to the divine to learn directly from the written works.

Religion, however, is a necessary evil, in my opinion. Throughout history, it has served to control masses of people who would otherwise have nowhere to look for answers. Most people don't want to question anything, they merely want to be told what to believe and how to live their lives. This frees them from having to make decisions about their lives on a daily basis and for peasants, this was easier for them. Religious holidays served as breaks from work and during the middle ages, there were as many as 50 holidays and feasts that were celebrated. During the early middle ages, major upheavals led to an increasingly complex struggle for power between the governments and the clergy. Corruption began to run rampant and this, obviously, affected the general public. Many of the same things that once gave the clergy such respect were quickly giving way to chaotic conditions. Marriage and sexual relations among clergy members began to become more and more common, the ownership of fiefs by clergy which led to the involvement of military action, and simony all led to the church's decline. Soon, there would be demands on the church to reform. In any case, the church and governmental were intimately intertwined in nearly every way. Courts were overseen by church officials and the public was at the mercy of both the church and the political establishments.

Section II

Land Acquisition
Feudalism came about because of an excess of land. During the wars that preceded the middle ages, kings gained so much land that it was impossible to implement any kind of control over it. A lack of a quick communication system combined with the extensive land led the kings to devise a plan for governing. The idea was to partition the land into large chunks, called fiefs, that would then be handed over to a baron. In exchange for this land, barons were required to make certain promises to the king. These included swearing an oath of allegiance to the king, providing military troops who would fight for the king, and paying taxes when the king requested them. Often, however, the baron could merely pay money to the king in lieu of providing military assistance.

Trickle Down Power
In using a phrase from recent times, "trickle down" sums up how power was handed over from one person to the other in a hierarchy of nobles and middlemen. The Barons who received large areas of land from the kings were made vassals of the king and lords of their land. However, the barons ran into the same problems as the king. They had no means of governing the still-vast land that they now were in charge of. So, they thus divided up their land into even smaller plots. This land was often given to a relative or a knight the lord trusted in exchange for similar oaths, money, and service that the lord had promised the king. Sometimes these land divisions went on beyond this level, but they usually involved the same agreements that accompanied the higher levels of division.

Serfs
Ultimately, the land was put into the hands of the serfs. Without these peasants, nothing would have gotten done. They were the ones who worked the land, tended the flocks, and otherwise gave most of their days to doing hard labor for either their own portion of land or the land of the lord for whom they worked. Lords viewed the serfs as inferior and often treated them harshly and without mercy. They were expected to allot X number of days a week to working in the lord's fields and usually they were required to pay a "tithe" or type of tax on their own crops. Excess moneys made went to the church in order to "guarantee" a good life in the hereafter. Even though some serfs were technically free, they were completely dependent upon their lord and the land on which they lived. The lords had the right to grant marriages, collect taxes, and force the serfs to use his own mills and communal ovens for which he often charged. These free serfs paid rent for the land they worked and the unfree serfs exchanged their work for their stay. Essentially, the serfs worked the land for the lord and got protection and smaller plots of land for their own use in return.

Manorial Politics
Since the serfs were so far removed from the king's power, they often set up their own political systems that offered at least some sense of self-governing. These manorial governments consisted of a court system by which other peasants would be judged by their peers, as well as numerous bylaws they created in an attempt to regulate their communities. The courts were usually overseen by a person appointed by the lord called a steward and was probably done to make sure no laws were passed and no topics discussed that could prove harmful to the lord of the manor.

Conclusion
With the increase of land in the very early middle ages, it was almost inevitable for government to evolve into Feudalism. The kings had no way of governing their people who were hundreds of miles away. Without a quick form of communication, the kings had no other option but to divide up their lands. Unfortunately, since there was such a distinct division between peasants and nobles, the nobles were allowed to do whatever they wanted on their land and they often took complete advantage of the very people who worked for them. At the time, I can only guess that the nobles felt this was their destiny, to rule this land in place of the king, and since they were born into a high status, they deserved to treat the lower class as they saw fit. Today, we think this is a horrible thing, but at the time, it was probably quite acceptable among both the nobles and the peasants. In viewing movies that took place during this time, they usually make the lords out to be terrible people who ruled with an "iron fist," and treated the serfs like nothing. While it's certainly possible that this is the case, and I do think it was in most cases, I don't think all of them were like that. Even in the U.S. during the time when slavery was an acceptable and normal way of life, there were people who weren't cruel to their slaves. So I am sure that was probably the case during Feudalism. At least some lords were probably more fair with the serfs who worked their land and some might have even been generous. I'm inclined to believe that even back then when things were more "uncivilized" by our standards, people did show some kind of mercy. Did I expect Feudalism to evolve? I remember reading the book, learning about all the warring that took place in the early part of the modern era and thought, "how are these kings going to govern all this land?" So yes, I think it was a natural progression given the time and frame of mind of these people.

Section III

Population
Early in the middle ages, Europe experienced many things that would aid a great increase in population. Namely, changes in climate which allowed for better growing conditions, an increase in land due to clear cutting, and a flourish of new technology centered around farming equipment. This, in turn, led to better living conditions and both quantitative and qualitative changes. These changes were necessary in order to support the dramatic rise in population that occurred around this time.
This increase in population enabled some people to devote themselves to something other than agriculture. Many people began buying their food in local marketplaces rather than growing their own. Soon, other careers also flourished such as tanners, clothes-makers, and smiths. These people began to congregate at the annual fairs started by Counts in major cities in order to sell their goods and from there, things grew. Cities were built up in order to accommodate merchants and their families, warehouses were built, and cities were fortified in order to provide protection from invaders. These cities were what would become major hubs for trade in the centuries to come.

The Early Crusades
One of the major contributors to the revival of trade was the crusades. As crusaders travelled to different areas of Europe in hopes of seeking out heretics, it became apparent that they would need supplies on their long journeys. This was a determining factor in where trade would be done and the way it would be handled. While the major crusades were yet to come, the earlier crusades that arose because of the discontent with the way the church was doing business and handling itself played a key role in the sparking of new trade.

Castles
A lasting testament to the revival of trade during the middle ages are the castles that still stand today. Without these fortresses that offered a place to live and do business as well as protection, the growth of major cities may have taken much longer. While much of Europe was still largely rural, many people were drawn to the security these monuments offered. As Feudalism began to diminish, a growth of city government took over. The needs of these protected towns was vastly different than that of the older manorial estates and as such, people began to have more of a say in the way they were governed. Lords saw the potential for economic growth and grasped hold of it. The practice of selling the townspeople their rights became a common practice along with the implementation of sales tax. Since these cities were such a breeding ground for wealth, the growth of trade was almost self-perpetuating.

Monastic Trade
Another contributing factor in the early stages of trade growth was the growing number of monasteries. Many, if not most, of these monasteries produced large amounts of agricultural products that they, in turn, sold at market. While it may not have played as large a part in the growth of trade, its presence is undeniable in that these monasteries were extremely successful businesses (while not their original intention).

The Spark of Capitalism
While master craftsmen might have been the norm in medieval industrial circles, a new form of manufacturing was started around this time. For products that were in demand, entrepreneurs began investing their money in businesses where they employed unskilled people to produce goods. This not only took the pressure off the business owner to produce these products himself, but it enabled mass production of goods by people who would have otherwise probably have been farmers since they were unskilled. For a long time, skilled craftsman would be a prevalent part of the crafts industry, but this type of mass production would forever increase in society as a viable option. Not only would it enable people to buy quality goods at lower prices since the people making the goods did not require a lengthy education, but it would also serve as a springboard for capitalistic endeavors that are still around today.

Section IV

Question: What was the purpose of castles? How were they built and what was the style of architecture like? What was life like in these massive structures?

Purpose
The main purpose behind the building of castles was defense. This is the reason for their fortified walls, moats, location, and size. Because land was precious and subject to many invasions, the castle became a pillar of strength and served as a warning to those trying to overtake the surrounding land. Occasionally, however, castles served as an offensive measure. In order to acquire new land, a lord or king would often order a castle built on land he wanted to overtake.

Other purposes that were served, but not the original intent, was to serve as security for a surrounding town. When feudalism was the main type of government being practiced, this type of security measure would have proven invaluable for attracting a large number of serfs to the area. A larger number of serfs meant more money for the lord and thus, increased his chances of becoming an even wealthier man than before.

As Feudalism and manorialism began to dwindle, the castle began to serve a new purpose. They were often expanded in order to make room for more people only now, marketplaces started to pop up within the borders of the castle walls. This, too, was a very important factor in attracting new business to the marketplace and served as a major contribution to the development of trade.

Architecture
Castles took years, decades, on occasionally centuries to build. They were massive stone structures that served not only military purposes, but also acted as housing for the lord or king that resided there along with family, troops, and staff members. Since this administrative staff could number in the hundreds, we can see why such a huge structure was needed. Castles also served as court buildings and thus, would need to be big enough for all of these purposes.

Castles consisted of vast amounts of rooms, a large kitchen, store-room, courtyards, barracks, a main hall or halls, kennels and stables, and other functional rooms. They were very cold, because they were made from stone, damp, and dark. It makes sense that they would use tapestries for practical purposes rather than for decoration and I would guess that over time, their function was slowly replaced with aestetic purposes. The general "look" of castles has become an icon of the medieval era with their turrets, towers, drawbridges, and moats. When people picture medieval times, they usually begin with that of a castle and its king or lord.

Life in a Castle
Life inside a castle is often romanticized and is a far cry from the reality. Because this was a time before central heating, fires were used for warmth and were reserved for the lord and his family. It's no wonder people were sick during this time and it's not surprising that the plague hit even wealthy people. Blankets, featherbeds and animal fur were all used to keep warm, however these were usually luxuries that only the main members of the household could afford.

Baths were either transportable, so they could be taken outside on warm days, or indoors. Chamberpots, or toilets, were named thus because they were usually in the lord or lady's chamber near the bed. Even so, the experience isn't one I would deem a pleasant one. Seats would probably have been made from wood (or stone, although I'm not sure why they would prefer it) and were probably very uncomfortable. They were emptied out at least once a day, but probably after every use.

Progression of Style
Early castles were large, but were still nothing more than stone structures that served a functional purpose. They didn't have much architectural style and were simple in nature. Most were built of rough-hewn stone that gave a "pebbly" appearance to the outer walls of the castle, and I assume the inner ones as well. As illustrated in photos of castles like the Rock of Cashel, built in the 4th century, we can see what the architecture was like during this time. As the focus of castles began incorporating not only security, but business, religious affiliation, and prestigious symbolism, style changed to reflect these things. We start to see a turn towards more beautiful structures using what would later become gothic arcitechtural features and decorative aspects of building. Filigree work, gargoyles, windows, and use of iron would slowly take the place of simple stonework. These are the castles we still see today, for the most part, as the earlier structures are many times in ruins.