Western Civilization--Renaissance

 
Section I

Prelude to the Reformation
There are many factors that led up to the reformation. The increasing wealth of the clergy, the corruption in the church, the lasting impression of the plague, the increasing amount of dogma within the Catholic religion, etc. While any one of these was enough to cause an uprising, the particular combination proved too much for the people to bear.

Hypocrisy in the Church
It seems to me that while the papal authorities were busy feasting on the finest meals, indulging in luxuries, and general enjoying an easy life free from hard work or worries about being "saved," the general public to whom they were preaching the benefits of piety were suffering as a result. The clergy felt that they were free from the burden of being saved merely because they were "men of the church." The problem with this is that they felt they could do anything and get away with it because they were above everyone else and their position in heaven was already secured. Erasmus spoke out about this in his work, The Praise of Folly, where he cited that monks who were supposed to live a life of labor, abstinence, humility, and modest means were indulging themselves in all kinds of ways. In essence, there was a major double standard here in which they clergy was telling the people to live in a certain pious manner that they themselves weren't exhibiting. As a result, trust in the clergy that was already at a low point as a result of dissension in previous years, sank even lower.

Dogma
Rather than teaching religion as a philosophy or a way of life, clergy members had gotten into the practice of teaching dogma, ritual, and how to get out of serving a sentence in purgatory. They weren't teaching people how to just be good people. They were teaching them how they could lie, steal, cheat, etc. say a few prayers or touch a relic or two, give a certain amount of money to the church and essentially be saved. This is just plain abuse of the masses of people who followed them without question. So much corruption in the church developed that I think it just became a way of life for them. People were able to make a pilgrimage to a holy site, touch a relic or even be in the presence of one, and have their time in purgatory reduced by 1,443 years. If someone had enough money, they were able to buy their way out of hell. Thus, people were able to do pretty much whatever they wanted as long as they had a way to get out of it. Thus, the church turned into a business based on fear and dogma rather than an organization set on educating people about the teachings of Christ. Christ's teachings had become so mangled that they were only mere shreds of what they had once been. This part of the reform movement had been brewing for a while. Perhaps there had been other people who had suggested reforms based on going back to the original intent of the church. Prior to the reformation, Erasmus wrote about changes such as these and indicated that the church should rid itself of all its dogma and ritual and begin educating people about how to read the scriptures themselves.

Education or Lack Thereof
While the clergy members were very well educated, their followers were not. Part of the reform movement's intent was to bring religion back into the hands of its followers and to educate them rather than keeping them in the dark so they would have to rely on what was being told them by the clergy.

Primed for Revolt
Because of these main influences, the followers of the Catholic church were primed for a revolt. People were questioning what they had to do to attain salvation, and the answers weren't adding up or making sense. What had started out as a quest to educate the public about the ways of Christ had turned into an abuse of power and authority by the papacy. Unfortunately, this abuse was neither new nor would it end with the reformation. Ultimately, the reformation was not just about the church. It was a movement towards individuality and enlightenment amongst the general population. The people were searching for some kind of control of their own lives; they wanted to be able to think freely without being burned at the stake for having different ideas. Too long, the people had been told what to do and think by everyone of higher authority, but since the church played such a huge part of their lives, all eyes would turn to them for answers and demands for change.

Martin Luther
Obviously, the major component to the reformation was Martin Luther. Without him, I doubt the reformation movement ever would have gotten very far. One should mention briefly, however, one other thing that was invaluable to Luther's ability to spread the word. And that is the printing press. Without going into great detail, it does need to be paid homage just for the fact that it enabled Luther to print mass copies of his written works and hand them out to the people which helped his ideas flourish in more than just his home town. Although others, such as Calvin and Zwingli, may have contributed to the reformation, it was Martin Luther who first publicized the problems he found within the church. Having firsthand knowledge of what went on in monasteries, Luther wrote the Ninety-Five Theses illustrating his complaints with the Catholic church. Of course, these were not well-received. However, because of ties he had made with the German princes as well as the never-ending problems for the new emperor, Charles V, Luther was able to go unpunished although he was declared a heretic by Pope Leo X and was forced to go into hiding for a year. By the time Charles V got his act together, it was too late for him to stop the growing support for Lutheranism and because the German states had been able to grow relatively independent, he was forced to acknowledge their sovereignty in the Peace of Augsburg. With this one truce, Catholicism and Lutheranism were afforded equal rights along with the ability of the German princes to decide the religion of their people.

The Move Towards Independent Thought
The church had moved so far away from the original intention of Christianity that it was hardly recognizable as such. After the plague, people became paranoid about death. It became real for them. They became obsessed with the search for salvation because of the fear of the immediacy of death. However, they were being abused by the church. Indulgences stated that anyone who could afford to, could buy their own salvation. Relics enabled the poorer people to have a better chance of being saved if they could make the pilgrimage to the holy sites. After Erasmus and Luther both preached against the church in favor of a return to the original teachings of Christ, people listened because it offered an alternative. The reformation wasn't necessarily a catalyst that brought people out of the middle ages, so to speak. It was more a combination of a doorway that would open them to be able to learn to read and think for themselves as well as a springboard for people who wanted a change already, but who were too afraid to go against the strong-arm tactics of the church. This was their opportunity.

My Opinionated Conclusion
Anyone who looks at history and doesn't expect the reformation to have taken place either doesn't understand the human need for some form of freedom or independence or doesn't believe the Catholic church was right in keeping their subjects in the dark. It took someone brave enough and, ironically, religious enough to bring about the changes in the church. While others may have speculated, only Martin Luther can be credited with the actions that made the division between the Catholic church and the Protestant church occur. It is a delicate mix of a group of people who were tired of living in fear of death without salvation, the papacy's greed and unbending rules that prevented anyone but the clergy from reading the scriptures, and an overall growing dissatisfaction with the church that led to reformation. In a system where you have such an obvious separation between the preachers and the preached to, revolt is inevitable. The church had lost its respect in the years preceding the reformation and as such, it had been building a while. All that was needed was a person to step out into the light, risk being persecuted, and say what was on his mind. The people, being already unhappy with the church, listened with open ears. Of course, not everyone agreed with him, but those who did were not only geographically separated from the church in most cases, but were also receptive to change. In closing, the reformation was not just a culmination of the middle ages or a beginning of a new era. It was both.

Section II

The Disease
The infamous bubonic plague was the most devastating disease to ever hit medieval Europe. It consists of a deadly bacteria that is carried by fleas that infest rats and other rodents and essentially anyone the fleas choose to live off of. It is passed from animal to human when the fleas that have ingested the blood of the infected rodent move to a human, regurgitate the rodent's blood into the human's blood stream, thus infecting the human. Symptoms are ugly and consist of high fever, aching limbs, swelling of the lymph nodes, bleeding internally, and vomiting blood. It is the massive swelling of the lymph nodes, however, that is what kills the victim. Swelling continues to increase and blood vessels under the skin break releasing blood under the skin. When the blood dries, it turns dark producing the characteristic black appearance that gives the name "black death," until the nodes burst, killing the victim. Incubation time is short and death follows 3-4 days after the first onset of symptoms in most cases although there are estimates that the chance of survival was as high as 25% which accounts for part of the reason not everyone died.

The Spread of the Plague
The plague started out in the Near East and followed trade routes in a circular pattern where it eventually ended up in Eastern Europe. Even though it took around 20 years to make its way from the Gobi desert to Constantinople, it only took 3 years from that point on to spread into the far northern regions of Europe. Because of unsanitary living conditions, a colder than normal climate, widespread malnutrition and other illnesses, as well as the possibility that there were two plagues at work, the death toll rose beyond what anyone could have predicted. In my opinion, I believe there must have been more than one form of the bacteria at work merely because it spread so easily. One form of the bacteria, the aforementioned plague passed via fleas, required blood contact, but there was another form of the plague that affected the lungs and was transmitted through the air. It makes more sense if both of these plagues were working together or if there was some kind of mutation involved because of the mass amounts of people who were affected in such a short time. In some areas such as Cairo, 7,000 people a day were dying although I question these reports as in most cities, the average was between 500-1000 a week.

The Big Cities
The places that were hit the hardest were large cities due the proximity of the people living in them as well as the squalid health standards. Smaller towns were, of course, hit and annihilated in some instances, and perhaps the large cities seem hardest hit because of the masses of people who were dying in such a short period of time. Among the hardest cities hit was London mainly because of its large population. Scholars estimate the losses in London to be as much as 50% of the population at the time, however, some believe this number has been exaggerated. In later outbreaks, London continued to be hit especially hard and the plague was mostly isolated to England.

An Attempt at Prevention
--Government
The government didn't view the plague as an act of God sent to kill off sinners. Even though this is a popular viewpoint, this wasn't the case. Many city officials took active measures to try and stop the plague from spreading, but because it was so virulent, it was unstoppable. Both the sick and the unaffected were entombed in the same houses condemned to die because of the massive panic the plague caused. It parts of Italy, ships were turned away from the mainland, but for the most part, this wasn't the norm.

--The People
In the face of crisis, people went beyond waiting for the plague to pass through, for the government to curtail its effects, or for it to eventually hit them as well. Herbal "cures" were very popular and included all kinds of tinctures, incense, and bundles that people carried with them. Talismans and amulets that were said to hold magical powers were also purchased from the local apothecary. Contrary to the government's rationale, the uneducated masses believed the plague was a curse from God. Unfortunately, the learned's opinion wasn't much better. A group of scholars got together in Paris to study the plague and reported back to the Pope with the explanation that it was caused by poisonous vapors due to the alignment of several planets in the year 1345. The "cure" they prescribed probably caused more harm than good as it was to abstain from meats, sleeping during the day, exercising, and bathing. While the wealthy could afford to hide out in the countryside, and thus many were spared, the poor were confined to the cities in which the plague had reached epidemic proportions.

--The Flagellants
While most people considered the plague to be a scourge from God, with the exception of the educated, some groups took this to new heights. The Flagellants, so called because the wandered the streets flogging and whipping themselves, believed that in order to rid themselves and others of the plague, all one needed to do was to do penance for their sins. Unfortunately, their practices of self-torture didn't end with the self. They soon began to try and save everyone by subjecting others to the same tortures. Eventually, the situation became so bad that the Pope finally condemned them and encouraged governments to do away with them after the flagellants began killing Jews and anyone who opposed them.

Repercussions
--Economy
Obviously, the economy was a major victim of the plague. Creditors had no one to collect from since whole families had perished. Laborers were few and far between because most of the people who died were the working poor and as a result, wages skyrocketed. A huge surplus or food and grain accumulated because there just weren't enough people left to utilize it, thus causing a drop in prices. In some cases, farms and entire villages were abandoned by the few people remaining. We also find revolts led by workers who were being pushed to produce more than usual in order to make up for the lack of labor.

--Culture
Along with the economy, culture also suffered. Professors of universities died and some colleges were completely closed. Too, many priests died and thus, no one was around to hear the confessions of the people who were left. Jews suffered a particularly great deal since they were already considered suspicious because of their beliefs. Many were accused of poisoning wells and were burned at the stake because of it. Art took on a dark and somber tone as artists expressed their dismay in their works. We begin to see some works of art that depict skeletons, apocalyptic scenes, and death as well as religion.

--Politics
Perhaps the least affected institution was the political one. Because the wealthiest were spared due to their ability to flee the areas where the plague hit the worst, only one monarch died from the plague. However, the 100 year's war was halted because so many soldiers had contracted the plague and died, but started up again soon after the plague passed. Even though large governments were largely spared, smaller levels of politics were affected on a greater scale. Whole families of nobles died and as a result, left littler or no governing factor in smaller towns.

Conclusion and Historical Implications
As with any outbreak of a major disease, the effects on history can be and usually are massive. People were left with a sense of questioning how their God could do something this horrible to them. Political arenas, while not suffering as much as other aspects of life, were affected and in some cases entire courts and governmental systems were shut down until the plague had ended. To say the people were left paranoid and confused is an understatement. One can only imagine the feeling of betrayal they must have felt due to this mass murder on the part of God, or so they thought. For a people so religious and full of faith, this left them with an increasing sense of urgency to reach salvation. Part of the reason the reformation was as popular as it was is because of the plague since the focus was on how to reach salvation. Over time, sanitation would become better as people began to realize just how the plague had been spread. Years later, however, people were still living in unsanitary conditions which led to many a recurrence of the plague, especially in England. The economy was greatly affected and took a while to recover, nobles were left without workers, wages soared, and a surplus dropped the prices of food so low that even the wealthy began to suffer great losses. Overall, the plague was a major setback for Europeans in the areas of economy, population, religion, and culture. However, I am not sure some of the good things that happened in the future would have taken hold as quickly as they did had the plague not left the people with such an obsession with death and salvation. While the plague would resurface several times in the future, Europe would never again be hit by death the way it was during this time.

Section III

Question: When people think of the Renaissance, a great art and literature movement come to mind. What was the big deal with art and literature during this time? How had things changed from the "dark ages" and before? What do you think led to these changes?

The Changing European Society
--Economics
In the wake of the black plague, the trade and manufacturing industries that had been on a steady rise for the past 3 centuries plunged in the 14th century. It wasn't until the middle of the 15th century that things began to look up. Trade and commerce began to improve and manufacturing, especially in Italy, was on the rise. Too, with the invention of the printing press as well as the growth of mining and metallurgy due to new technology, we see a rise in the economy that would translate into an increased sense of hope and well-being among the people of Europe.

--Social Changes
Changes in the way the social classes, particularly the nobles, marked the end of the middle ages into the very beginning of the Renaissance. With the publishing of a book called The Book of the Courtier, nobles were now expected to not only be educated in arms, but also in classical subjects such as art, music, and literature. This book became so popular that it no doubt played a large part in why the Renaissance became known for it's creative surge. While the nobles were concerning themselves with education, however, the peasant class was focusing on another area. With the decline of serfdom, more and more peasants were becoming free. After the black plague hit in the 1300s, the people were left wondering why a God who was supposed to be loving and merciful would do such a thing. The people needed some shred of hope and thus, they were ready for something to come their way. That something would be the Renaissance.

The Components of What Made the Renaissance Great
--Humanism and Education
The humanist movement began in Italy where it blossomed into a major classical educational system for the wealthy. Its main focus was on philosophy, rhetoric, ethics, history, and literature. In some areas, Greek works were favored above others and scholars studied the works of ancient Greek writers and philosophers such as Plato, Thucydides, and Sophocles. Soon, however, the interest in Greek works grew and many humanists were studying these ancient texts. By the time the Renaissance began, the Italian humanist movement was in full swing and had left quite an impact on the rest of Europe. Humanists believed that people could improve themselves through education, and their main goal was to produce moral, ethical human beings who possessed the skills of persuasion so they could talk others into following the same path. They are responsible for the popularization of education in Europe during the Renaissance and thus, play an extremely important part in the "enlightenment" of many people during this time.

--Art
Perhaps even more important, and definitely more notable, than the Humanist movement was the artistic movement during the Renaissance. When people conjure images of the Renaissance, it's usually of beautiful works of art. While some images prior to the 1400s had religious or morbid overtones, during the Renaissance we see a return to nature, a new attention to artistic detail and principles of perspective and use of mathematics to figure proper ratios, as well as new color palettes. Now, instead of the focus being on portraying events or scenes, the primary goal of the Renaissance artists was to paint people as they were, to convince the onlooker that what they were viewing was reality. This is a reflection of the movement to look inward rather than relying on the church or government to tell the people what to do, what to think, and how to be saved. Religion was still a prominent theme, however, but again, the focus was portraying scenes based on realism and history rather than hell and damnation.

The most important part of the Renaissance was during the time of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo, all very well known to this day. Leonardo's approach to painting was influenced by his love for anatomy and science and this was apparent in his paintings. He made great use of perspective, the human body, and proper ratios. Moving beyond mere realism, his paintings are idealized representations of nature or historical events. In what is perhaps his most famous religious painting, The Last Supper, he portrays Christ surrounded by his apostles. This painting doesn't just show a scene from the bible, it is a masterpiece of human interaction, idealized figures, perspective, and ratios used to make Christ appear almost angelic. Each person in the painting shows their emotion and character and this is illustrative of da Vinci's masterful technique.
Another influential artist during the Renaissance was Michelangelo. Best known for his portrayal of the fall of man in his paintings on the Sistine Chapel, we can clearly see what a master he was in his craft. The idealized figures stem from the influence Neoplatonism had on him as we can see by the heavily muscled figures that are "god-like" in nature.

In the north, the style of painting took on a different hue. A blend of light and dark color palettes were used to give the feeling of "good" or "evil" within paintings during this time. In order to give a "holy" or light appearance to certain subjects, the artist would use lighter colors and then surround them with darker colored objects or other people. This is apparent in Albrecht Durer's painting Adoration of the Magi where we see everyone painted in middle and dark tones except the the baby Jesus and Mary's head and hands. Gothic cathedrals were still popular and thus, altarpieces and wooden panels were painted as decorations for the church. The main emphasis was on detail and observation or their surroundings rather than on mathematics or perspective. It was still realism, but a different portrayal of it.

Conclusion
Obviously, the Renaissance was a high point for artistic expression in many ways. Education of the classics as well as art of all forms, but especially paintings and sculptures, marked this period. As a reflection of past events, we see a new hope among the people. It is a way to escape the years prior and the death that surrounded them in the not so distant past. In looking for answers to their questions, the people began to look inward. Soon, their need for a new view of religion would be found in Martin Luther, but even at the beginning of the Renaissance we see a movement to bring a new idealized vision of humans and nature into the picture. The Renaissance marks a turning point for Europe in that it is the beginning of the end of a series of tragedies, it is the beginning of renewed hope that is reflected in the artwork and ideas of the day.

By Lissa
Copyright 2001